Articles by Ramnath Narayanswamy

ALBANIA Restructuring Centralised Authority Ramnath Narayanswamy WELL known for its strict ideological insulation from the outside world, the Albanian experience of economic reform has not received the attention it assuredly deserves when compared to the other centrally planned economies of Eastern Europe. Very little is known about the country, a state of affairs for which academic indifference is in some measure responsible. But intellectual neglect apart, the Albanian experiment with centralised planning possesses several unique features and national specificities that merit attention not only from the point of view of the economic and institutional problems afflicting the socialist economies of Eastern Europe, but equally from the lessons thrown up the experience. Albania was the last country in Europe to adopt the Soviet-type model which occurred only a year before its political break from the Soviet Union. Also, its long association with the Chinese version of putting 'politics in command' has tent a certain interesting dimension to its efforts at improving economic performance. The most important factor however is geographical: "More than in any other East European state", writes Michael Kaiser, that able specialist on East European affairs, "the compactness of the territory facilitates direct contact between central officials and local managers in the flow and counterflow of information and mutual appreciation of intents and objectives. What are local problems elsewhere are national on the Albanian scale: it has the same population as Budapest, there are six Romanian counties with more than its arable area, and its total forest cover is less than in a combination of almost any two Polish voivodships

spread family planning acceptance which resulted in fertility control in that country was made possible, along with other factors, by the strong incentives and disincentives introduced by the government at the time when the parents started perceiving the benefits of a small family.2 On the basis of the foregoing argument one may refute Gopalan's method of comparing states and his conclusion that reduction in the number of children does not strikingly improve the nutritional status of the children. Further, differences in the food habits of the people of different states make comparison of the magnitude of malnutrition between states misleading. An increase in real income in the lower strata of society may not alter the food habits of the people but may only improve their dietary intake. One can also expect differentials across the country in household priority towards food, clothing and education with an increase in real income. In view of these diversities, the effect of reduction in the number of children on the incidence of child malnutrition could be explained only within a state over a period of time if significant reduction in the family size has taken place.


been granted the status of More Other Backward Classes and a few have been recognised as scheduled castes. Lack of adequate educational facilities, apathy of the teachers and the management wherever such facilities exist have deprived the children of plantation workers of schooling. Moreover, the children at the primary level find it difficult to cope with Assamese as medium of instruction as it is not their mother-tongue. Lack of proper education has restricted occupational mobility of the plantation workers and their children. Bhattacharya observed that the few persons from tea garden com- munities who had gone in for higher education were mainly from tea gardens where the management had taken a special interest in education or they were from families of ex-tea garden labourers.

Similarly, the provision in the Bill regarding inter-university transfer in the state would be further cause for uncertainty and insecurity to them. For the transfers, whatever be the department, are an important and known method of punishment of the 'erring' employees. The threat of transfer can always be used to set right a defiant or a non-conformist employee.

more self-reliant, the area of operation and strength of each command has been enlarged by mergers. The NPA 'fronts' have in this process been reduced from 42 to 26. These 26 'fronts' now extend in 40 provinces out of the total of 60 provinces in the country convering 4,000 villages and 300 towns. The new Communist Party of the Philippines (re-established in 1968) has now 40,000 cadres and 800,000 members of the mass organisations led by it in the areas of the NPA's operation. The NPA has expanded its capacity for arms production by 200 per cent and can now manufacture highpower rifles, It is said to have consolidated its influence in the base areas through multifarious activities, Though the actual dimension of the land distribution has not been accurately compiled, the working peasants have benefited from the curbing of usury and a doubling of wage rates. Small peasants have been induced to adopt mutual co-operation. About 90 per cent of the illiterates have become literates. Public health is being sought to be improved through the practice of acupuncture, herbal medicines and minor surgery, WESTERN EUROPE The party is also gaining strength among the workers, urban poor and the students in Metro Manila. Though the independent strength of the recently formed militant trade union centre is not large, it is capable of influencing the ranks of the reformist and yellow unions through various forms of mass contact. In the recent union elections in the largest and most prestigious University of the Philippines, held for the first time since the imposition of the martial law rule eight years ago, the radical students scored a landslide victory.